VCE Humanities

Accounting

Units 1 - 4     2025 - 2029

Scope of Study

VCE Accounting explores and applies the financial recording, reporting, analysis and decision making systems and processes of a sole proprietor trading business. Students study the theoretical aspects of accounting and practically apply these principles. They collect, record, report, analyse, apply, evaluate and discuss accounting information using both manual and ICT based methods.

Students apply critical thinking skills to a range of business situations. They model alternative outcomes and use financial information generated to provide accounting advice to business owners, whilst taking into account ethical as well as financial considerations. 

Rationale

Accounting is the process of collecting, recording, reporting, analysing and interpreting financial and non-financial data and accounting information, and using it to model, forecast and provide advice to stakeholders in a business. This informs decision-making within the business, with a view to improving business performance. Accounting therefore plays an integral role in the successful and management of businesses.

VCE Accounting prepares students for a university or Technical and Further Education (TAFE) vocational study pathway to commerce, management and accounting, leading to careers in areas such as financial accounting; management accounting; forensic (investigative) accounting; taxation; environmental accounting; management; and corporate or personal financial planning.

Structure

The study is made up of four units. 

Unit 1: The Role of Accounting in Business

Unit 2: Accounting and Decision-making for a Trading Business 

Unit 3: Financial Accounting for a Trading Business

Unit 4: Recording, Reporting, Budgeting and Decision-making

Each unit deals with specific content contained in areas of study and is designed to enable students to achieve a set of outcomes for that unit. Each outcome is described in terms of key knowledge and key skills.

Entry

There are no prerequisites for entry to Units 1, 2 and 3. Students must undertake Unit 3 and Unit 4 as a sequence.

Units 1 to 4 are designed to a standard equivalent to the final two years of secondary education. All VCE studies are benchmarked against comparable national and international curriculums.

Unit 1: The Role of Accounting in Business

This unit explores the establishment of a business and the role of accounting in the determination of business success or failure. It considers the importance of accounting information to stakeholders. 

Students analyse, interpret and evaluate the performance of the business using financial and non-financial information. They use these evaluations to make recommendations regarding the suitability of a business as an investment.

Students record financial data and prepare reports for service businesses owned by sole proprietors.

Where appropriate, the accounting procedures developed in each area of study should incorporate the application of the IASB’s Conceptual Framework and financial indicators to measure business performance. 

They should also take into account the ethical considerations, including financial, social and environmental considerations, faced by business owners when making business decisions.

Unit 2: Accounting and Decision-making for a Trading Business

In this unit, students develop their knowledge of the accounting process for sole proprietors operating a trading business, with a focus on inventory, accounts receivable, accounts payable and non-current assets. Students use manual processes and ICT, including spreadsheets, to prepare historical and budgeted accounting reports.

Students analyse and evaluate the performance of the business relating to inventory, accounts receivable, accounts payable and non-current assets. They use relevant financial and other information to predict, budget and compare the potential effects of alternative strategies on the performance of the business. Using these evaluations, students develop and suggest to the owner strategies to improve business performance.

Where appropriate, the accounting procedures developed in each area of study should incorporate application of the Conceptual Framework, financial indicators and the ethical considerations faced by business owners, including financial, social and environmental considerations, when making business decisions.

Unit 3: Financial Accounting for a Trading Business

This unit focuses on financial accounting for a trading business owned by a sole proprietor, and highlights the role of accounting as an information system. Students use the double entry system of recording financial data and prepare reports using the accrual basis of accounting and the perpetual method of inventory recording.

Students develop their understanding of the accounting processes for recording and reporting, and consider the effects of decisions made on the performance of the business. They interpret reports and information presented in a variety of formats and suggest strategies to the owner to improve the performance of the business.

Where appropriate, the accounting procedures developed in each area of study should incorporate the application of the Conceptual Framework, financial indicators to measure business performance, as well as the ethical considerations, including financial, social and environmental considerations, faced by business owners when making business decisions.

Unit 4: Recording, Reporting, Budgeting and Decision-making

In this unit, students further develop their understanding of accounting for a trading business owned by a sole proprietor and the role of accounting as an information system. Students use the double entry system of recording financial data and prepare reports using the accrual basis of accounting and the perpetual method of inventory recording. Both manual methods and ICT are used to record and report.

Students extend their understanding of the recording and reporting processes, with the inclusion of balance day adjustments and alternative depreciation methods. They investigate both the role and the importance of budgeting in decision-making for a business. 

They analyse and interpret accounting reports and graphical representations to evaluate the performance of a business. Using this evaluation, students suggest strategies to business owners to improve business performance.

Where appropriate, the accounting procedures developed in each area of study should incorporate application of the Conceptual Framework and financial indicators to measure business performance, as well as the ethical considerations, including financial, social and environmental considerations, faced by business owners when making business decisions.

Assessment

Satisfactory Completion

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on whether the student has demonstrated the set of outcomes specified for the unit. Teachers should use a variety of learning activities and assessment tasks to provide a range of opportunities for students to demonstrate the key knowledge and key skills in the outcomes.

The areas of study and key knowledge and key skills listed for the outcomes should be used for course design and the development of learning activities and assessment tasks.

Levels of Achievement Units 1 and 2

Procedures for the assessment of levels of achievement in Units 1 and 2 are a matter for school decision.

Units 3 and 4

The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority will supervise the assessment of all students undertaking Units 3 and 4 in School-assessed Coursework and an end of year exam.

Percentage contributions to the study score in VCE Accounting are as follows:

Unit 3 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

Unit 4 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

End-of-year examination: 50%

Business Management

Units 1 - 4    2023 - 2027

Scope of Study

VCE Business Management examines the ways businesses manage resources to achieve objectives. The VCE Business Management Study Design follows the process from the initial idea for a business concept, to planning and establishing a business, through to the day-to-day management of a business.

 It also considers changes that need to be made to ensure the continued success of a business. Students develop an understanding of the complexity of the challenges facing decision-makers in managing businesses and their resources.

A range of management theories is considered and compared with management in practice through contemporary case studies drawn from the past four years. Students learn to propose and evaluate alternative strategies in response to contemporary challenges in establishing and operating a business.

Rationale

In contemporary Australian society there is a range of businesses managed by people who establish systems and processes to achieve a variety of business objectives. These systems and processes are often drawn from both historical experience and management theories that are designed to optimise the likelihood of achieving success.

In studying VCE Business Management, students develop knowledge and skills that enhance their confidence and ability to participate effectively as ethical and socially responsible members of society, managers and leaders of the business community, and as informed citizens, consumers and investors. 

The study of VCE Business Management leads to opportunities across all facets of the business and management field such as small business owner, project manager, human resource manager, operations manager or executive manager. Further study can lead to specialisation in areas such as marketing, public relations and event management.

Structure

The study is made up of four units:

Unit 1: Planning a business

Unit 2: Establishing a business

Unit 3: Managing a business 

Unit 4: Transforming a business

Each unit deals with specific content contained in areas of study and is designed to enable students to achieve a set of outcomes for that unit. Each outcome is described in terms of key knowledge and key skills.

Entry

There are no prerequisites for entry to Units 1, 2 and 3. Students must undertake Unit 3 and Unit 4 as a sequence. Units 1–4 are designed to a standard equivalent to the final two years of secondary education. 

All VCE studies are benchmarked against comparable national and international curriculum.

Unit 1: Planning a Business

Businesses of all sizes are major contributors to the economic and social wellbeing of a nation. The ability of entrepreneurs to establish a business and the fostering of conditions under which new business ideas can emerge are vital for a nation’s wellbeing. 

Taking a business idea and planning how to make it a reality are the cornerstones of economic and social development. 

In this unit students explore the factors affecting business ideas and the internal and external environments within which businesses operate, as well as the effect of these on planning a business. They also consider the importance of the business sector to the national economy and social wellbeing.

Unit 2: Establishing a Business

This unit focuses on the establishment phase of a business. Establishing a business involves compliance with legal requirements as well as decisions about how best to establish a system of financial record keeping, staff the business and establish a customer base. 

In this unit students examine the legal requirements that must be met to establish a business.  They investigate the essential features of effective marketing and consider the best way to meet the needs of the business in terms of staffing and financial record keeping. 

Students analyse management practices by applying key knowledge to contemporary business case studies from the past four years.

Unit 3: Managing a Business

In this unit students explore the key processes and considerations for managing a business efficiently and effectively to achieve business objectives. Students examine different types of businesses and their respective objectives and stakeholders. 

They investigate strategies to manage both staff and business operations to meet objectives and develop an understanding of the complexity and challenge of managing businesses. 

Students compare theoretical perspectives with current practice, through the use of contemporary Australian and global business case studies from the past four years.

Unit 4: Transforming a Business

Businesses are under constant pressure to adapt and change to meet their objectives. In this unit students consider the importance of reviewing key performance indicators to determine current performance and the strategic management necessary to position a business for the future. 

Students study a theoretical model to undertake change and consider a variety of strategies to manage change in the most efficient and effective way to improve business performance. 

They investigate the importance of effective management and leadership in change management. 

Using one or more contemporary business case studies from the past four years, students evaluate business practice against theory.

Assessment

Satisfactory Completion

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on the teacher’s decision that the student has demonstrated achievement of the set of outcomes specified for the unit. Demonstration of achievement of outcomes and satisfactory completion of a unit are determined by evidence gained through the assessment of a range of learning activities and tasks. 

Levels of Achievement Units 1 and 2

All assessments at Units 1 and 2 are school-based. Procedures for assessment of levels of achievement in Units 1 and 2 are a matter for school decision.

Units 3 and 4

The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority will supervise the assessment of all students undertaking Units 3 and 4 in School-assessed Coursework and an end of year exam.

Percentage contributions to the study score in VCE Business Management are as follows:

Unit 3 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

Unit 4 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

End-of-year examination: 50%

Economics

Units 1 - 4   2023 - 2027

Scope of study

Economics is the study of how resources are allocated to meet the needs and wants of society. It attempts to explain how and why people behave the way they do and the consequences of their decision-making. 

By unpacking the economic considerations around how to best meet the needs and wants of citizens, the study of Economics provides students with valuable insight into issues that may affect them both individually and as members of society. Economics assists us in making more informed and responsible decisions and in making a contribution to public debate as active citizens.

Rationale 

The study of economics examines the role of consumers, businesses, governments and other organisations in decision-making about the allocation of resources, the production and distribution of goods and services and the effect that these decisions may have on material and non-material living standards. 

Developing students’ understanding of economics will enable them to appreciate the reasons behind these decisions as well as the intended and unintended consequences of economic decision-making. Acquisition of economics knowledge and skills assists students to make more informed and responsible economic decisions and contribute to public discourse as informed citizens.

Through studying economics, students develop a range of skills, including an ability to gather, organise, analyse and synthesise a wide selection of economics information. They undertake independent inquiry, think critically and work collaboratively with their peers to develop viable solutions to contemporary economic issues. 

They consider the way in which economic agents respond to incentives, disincentives, make trade-offs, weigh up costs and benefits and make judgments about what is efficient and what is fair. They utilise economic models and the tools of economists effectively to analyse and evaluate the decisions made by key economic agents. In the process students appreciate the different viewpoints about issues that may affect the modern economy and broader society.

Over time, the changing nature of work will require students to be equipped with the kinds of transferrable, problem-solving, communication, evaluation and critical analysis skills developed through the study of economics. 

These skills can be used across many employment fields, including foreign affairs, banking, finance, health, environment and education. Economics leads to a broad range of career options such as economist, journalist, public policy advisor, political consultant, media commentator, entrepreneur, business owner, environmental manager, investment banker, investment analyst, management consultant, business analyst, actuary, accountant, academic, teacher, stockbroker, banker, town planner and many more.

Structure

The study is made up of four units:

Unit 1: Economic decision-making

Unit 2: Economic issues and living standards

Unit 3: Australia’s living standards

Unit 4: Managing the economy

Each unit deals with specific content contained in areas of study and is designed to enable students to achieve a set of outcomes for that unit. Each outcome is described in terms of key knowledge and key skills.

Entry

There are no prerequisites for entry to Units 1, 2 and 3. Students must undertake Unit 3 and Unit 4 as a sequence. Units 1 to 4 are designed to a standard equivalent to the final two years of secondary education. All VCE studies are benchmarked against comparable national and international curriculum.

Unit 1: Economic Decision Making

Economics is a dynamic and constantly evolving field of social science, which looks at the way humans behave and the decisions made to meet the needs and wants of society. In this unit students explore their role in the economy, how they interact with businesses, and the role of the government in the economy. Students are introduced to and explore fundamental economic concepts. 

They examine basic economic models where consumers and businesses engage in mutually beneficial transactions and investigate the motivations behind both consumer and business behaviour. They examine how individuals might respond to incentives. Students are encouraged to investigate contemporary examples and case studies to enhance their understanding of the introductory economics concepts.

Students use demand and supply models to explain changes in prices and quantities traded. Through close examination of one or more markets, they gain insight into the factors that may affect the way resources are allocated in an economy and how market power can affect efficiency and living standards.

Students consider the insights of behavioural economics and how those insights contrast with the traditional model of consumer behaviour. They investigate at least one behavioural economics experiment and analyse how the theories and observations of behavioural economics have been used by government in planning and implementing policy, and by businesses in managing their relationships with consumers.

Unit 2: Economic Issues and Living Standards

A core principle of economics is maximising the living standards of society. This is done through economic decisions that optimise the use of resources to produce goods and services that satisfy human needs and wants. Economic activity is therefore a key consideration for economics. 

Students consider the link between economic activity and economic growth and investigate the importance of economic growth in raising living standards. They evaluate the benefits and costs of continued economic growth and consider the extent to which our current measurements of living standards are adequate.

Economics provides useful tools for investigating contemporary issues that inspire debate and wide differences in opinion. Students undertake an applied economic analysis of two contemporary economics issues from a local, national and international perspective. 

They use the tools of data collection, analysis, synthesis and evaluation to examine the issue through an economics lens. They do this through investigation of the economic factors influencing the issue and via examination of its economic importance at a local, national and international level. 

Students consider the perspectives of relevant economic agents and evaluate the validity and effectiveness of individual and collective responses to the issue.

Unit 3: Australia’s Living Standards

The Australian economy is constantly evolving. The main instrument for allocating resources is the market, but government also plays a significant role in resource allocation. In this unit students investigate the role of the market in allocating resources and examine the factors that affect the price and quantity traded for a range of goods and services. Students develop an understanding of the key measures of efficiency and how market systems might result in efficient outcomes.  Students consider contemporary issues to explain the need for government intervention in markets and why markets might fail to maximise society’s living standards.

As part of a balanced examination, students also consider unintended consequences of government intervention in the market. Students develop an understanding of the macroeconomy. They investigate the factors that affect the level of aggregate demand and aggregate supply in the economy and apply theories to explain how changes in these variables might affect achievement of domestic macroeconomic goals and living standards. Students assess the extent to which the Australian economy has achieved these macroeconomic goals during the past two years.

Australia’s living standards depend, in part, on strong economic relationships with its major trading partners. Students investigate the importance of international economic relationships and the effect of these on Australian living standards. Students analyse how international transactions are recorded and examine how economic factors might affect the value of the exchange rate, the terms of trade and Australia’s international competitiveness. Students also analyse how changes in the value of the exchange rate, the terms of trade and international competitiveness affect the domestic macroeconomic goals.

Unit 4: Managing the Economy

The ability of the Australian economy to achieve its domestic macroeconomic goals has a significant effect on living standards in Australia. Policymakers, including the Australian Government and the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), can utilise a wide range of policy instruments to affect these goals and to affect living standards.

This unit focuses on the role of aggregate demand policies in stabilising the business cycle to achieve the domestic macroeconomic goals. Students develop an understanding of how the Australian Government can alter the composition of budgetary outlays and receipts to directly and indirectly affect the level of aggregate demand, the achievement of domestic macroeconomic goals and living standards. 

Students also examine the role of the RBA with a focus on its responsibility to conduct monetary policy. Students consider how the tools of monetary policy can affect interest rates, the transmission mechanism of monetary policy to the economy and how this contributes towards the achievement of the domestic macroeconomic goals and living standards. Students consider and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the aggregate demand policies in achieving the domestic macroeconomic goals and living standards. 

Expanding the productive capacity of the economy and improving Australia’s international competitiveness is critical to ensuring that economic growth, low inflation and employment opportunities can be maintained both now and into the future. Students consider how the Australian Government utilises selected aggregate supply policies to pursue the achievement of the domestic macroeconomic goals and living standards over the long term.

Assessment

Satisfactory Completion

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on the teacher’s decision that the student has demonstrated achievement of the set of outcomes specified for the unit. Demonstration of achievement of outcomes and satisfactory completion of a unit are determined by evidence gained through the assessment of a range of learning activities and tasks.

Levels of Achievement

Units 1 & 2

Procedures for the assessment of levels of achievement in Units 1 and 2 are a matter for school decision

Units 3 & 4

The VCAA specifies the assessment procedures for students undertaking scored assessment in Units 3 and 4. Designated assessment tasks are provided in the details for each unit in VCE study designs.

Percentage contributions to the study score in VCE Economics are as follows:

Unit 3 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

Unit 4 School-assessed Coursework: 25%

End-of-year examination: 50%

History

Units 1 - 4   2022 - 2026

Scope of Study

History is a dynamic discipline that involves structured inquiry into the human actions, forces and conditions (social, political, economic, cultural, environmental and technological) that have shaped the past and present. To make meaning of the past, historians use historical sources, which include primary sources and historical interpretations. Historians analyse and evaluate evidence and use this when constructing historical arguments. As historians ask new questions, revise interpretations, or discover new sources, fresh understandings about the past come to light.

Although history deals with the particular – specific individuals and key events – the potential scope of historical inquiry is vast and formed by the questions that historians pursue, the availability of historical sources, and the capacity of historians to interpret those sources. VCE History reflects this by enabling students to explore a variety of eras and periods, events, people, places and ideas.

Ancient History investigates individuals and societies (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome and China) across three millennia. Empires explores the ideas and power relations accompanying the growth of empires in the early modern period. Modern History examines the causes and consequences of conflict and change in the modern era. Australian History investigates continuity and change from pre-colonial times to the modern day. Revolutions explores the causes and consequences of significant social upheaval (America, France, Russia and China) in the modern period.

Rationale

The study of VCE History assists students to understand themselves, others, and the contemporary world, and broadens their perspective by examining events, ideas, individuals, groups and movements. Students of VCE History develop social, political, economic and cultural understandings of the conditions and features which have helped shape the present. They also explore continuity and change: the world is not as it has always been, and it will be subject to change in the future. In this sense, history is relevant to contemporary issues. It fosters an understanding of human agency and informs decision making in the present.

The study of VCE History fosters the ability to ask searching questions, to engage in independent research and to construct arguments about the past based on evidence from historical sources. Historical comprehension enables a source to be understood in relation to its context; that is, students make links between the historical source and the world context in which it was produced.

We can never know the whole past. Historical knowledge rests on the interpretation of historical sources that are used as evidence. Furthermore, judgments about historical significance made by historians are central to the discipline. Historians do not always agree about the meaning of the past; historical interpretations are often subject to academic and popular debate. Therefore, history is contested, and students develop an ability to work within this contested space to form their own opinions and to defend them using evidence. The study of VCE History equips students to enhance their critical thinking, take an informed position on how the past informs the present and future, and contributes to them becoming informed and engaged citizens.

Structure

The study is made up of thirteen units.

Each unit deals with specific content contained in areas of study and is designed to enable students to achieve a set of outcomes for that unit. Each outcome is described in terms of key knowledge and key skills.

Entry

There are no prerequisites for entry to Units 1, 2 and 3. Students must undertake Unit 3 prior to undertaking Unit 4. Units 1 to 4 are designed to a standard equivalent to the final two years of secondary education. All VCE studies are benchmarked against comparable national and international curriculum.

Empires

Units 1 and 2: Empires

In Units 1 and 2 Empires, students investigate the foundations and features of empires and the significant global changes they brought to the wider world in the early modern period. Empires at their core were expansionist, dominating trade and political influence in their regional or global contexts. A range of key factors arising from the social, political, economic, cultural, religious, environmental and technological features of Empires played a role in the ambition and quest for power, prestige and influence over rival and competing states.

By the 15th century, international trade was dominated by the Republic of Venice, the Ming Dynasty in China and the Byzantine Empire. Between them they controlled key trading hubs along the Silk Road and Mediterranean Sea, in cities such as Constantinople, Venice and Beijing. Other empires were regional rather than global in reach: Mughals in India, Ming and Qing in China and the Tsars of Russia. By the 16th century the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople and controlled key trading routes. 

Emerging European powers Portugal, Spain, France, Britain and the Netherlands circumvented the power of these established empires, gaining access to goods through alternative routes. By harnessing new knowledge and technologies, their voyages of exploration into the Asia-Pacific, the Americas and Africa challenged the hegemony of power of existing empires beyond the Mediterranean world.

Mindsets also changed. Emergent new ideas of the Renaissance brought forth innovative theories of the Scientific Revolution, the reforms of Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation and, later, the Enlightenment. New economic structures of capitalism and mercantilism and the political ideas of absolute authority enabled Western European empires to entrench and impose their power on their colonial subjects. 

Consequently, new trade networks such as the ‘Columbian Exchange’ increased the prevalence and reliance on the slave trade and the demand for resources. Europe and Asia profited in their monopolies at the expense of indigenous cultures and environmental sustainability.

Imperial exploitation of colonial outposts and occupied territories drastically affected the indigenous peoples and the colonial societies. The local and international rivalries that ensued had an impact on the management and defence of empires. Wars and conflicts escalated as the quest for territorial power and resources intensified, culminating in the Seven Year’s War, which later influenced the revolutions within America, France and Haiti.

Modern History

Unit 1 Change & Conflict

In this unit students investigate the nature of social, political, economic and cultural change in the later part of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Modern History provides students with an opportunity to explore the significant events, ideas, individuals and movements that shaped the social, political, economic and technological conditions and developments that have defined the modern world.

The late 19th century marked a challenge to existing empires, alongside growing militarism and imperialism. Empires continued to exert their powers as they competed for new territories, resources and labour across Asia-Pacific, Africa and the Americas, contributing to tremendous change. This increasingly brought these world powers into contact and conflict. Italian unification and German unification changed the balance of power in Europe, the USA emerged from a bitter civil war and the Meiji Restoration brought political revolution to Japan.

Meanwhile, China under the Qing struggled to survive due to foreign imperialism. Modernisation and industrialisation also challenged and changed the existing political, social and economic authority of empires and states. During this time the everyday lives of people significantly changed.

World War One was a significant turning point in modern history. It represented a complete departure from the past and heralded changes that were to have significant consequences for the rest of the twentieth century. The post-war treaties ushered in a period where the world was, to a large degree, reshaped with new borders, movements, ideologies and power structures and led to the creation of  many new nation states. 

These changes had many unintended consequences that would lay the foundations for future conflict and instability in Europe, the Americas, Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Economic instability caused by the Great Depression contributed to great social hardship as well as to the development of new political movements.

The period after World War One, in the contrasting decades of the 1920s and 1930s, was characterised by significant social, political, economic, cultural and technological change. In 1920 the League of Nations was established, but despite its ideals about future peace, subsequent events and competing ideologies would contribute to the world being overtaken by war in 1939.

New fascist governments used the military, education and propaganda to impose controls on the way people lived, to exclude particular groups of people and to silence criticism. In Germany, the persecution of the Jewish people and other minorities intensified, resulting, during World War Two, in the Holocaust. In the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), millions of people were forced to work in state-owned factories and farms and had limited personal freedom. Japan became increasingly militarised and anti- Western.

Turkey emerged out of the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and embarked on reforms to establish a secular democracy. In the United States of America (USA), foreign policy was shaped by isolationism, and the consumerism and material progress of the Roaring Twenties was tempered by the Great Depression in 1929. Writers, artists, musicians, choreographers and filmmakers reflected, promoted or resisted political, economic and social changes.

Unit 2: The Changing World Order

In this unit students investigate the nature and impact of the Cold War and challenges and changes to social, political and economic structures and systems of power in the second half of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first century.

The establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 was intended to take an internationalist approach to avoiding warfare, resolving political tensions and addressing threats to human life and safety. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948 was the first global expression of human rights. However, despite internationalist moves, the second half of the twentieth century was dominated by the Cold War, competing ideologies of democracy and communism and proxy wars. 

By 1989 the USSR began to collapse. Beginning with Poland, Eastern European communist dictatorships fell one by one. The fall of the Berlin Wall was a significant turning point in modern history.

The period also saw continuities in and challenges and changes to the established social, political and economic order in many countries. The continuation of moves towards decolonisation led to independence movements in former colonies in Africa, the Middle East, Asia and the Pacific. New countries were created, and independence was achieved through both military and diplomatic means. Ethnic and sectarian conflicts also continued, and terrorism became increasingly global.

The second half of the twentieth century also saw the rise of social movements that challenged existing values and traditions, such as the civil rights movement, feminism and environmental movements, as well as new political partnerships, such as the UN, European Union, APEC, OPEC, ASEAN and the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The beginning of the twenty-first century heralded both a changing world order and further advancements in technology and social mobility on a global scale. However, terrorism remained a major threat, influencing politics, social dynamics and the migration of people across the world.

The attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001 was a significant turning point for what became known as the war on global terror and shaped the first decade of the twenty-first century, including the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Global Financial Crisis challenged and contributed to some change in the social, political and economic features and structures; however, many continuities remained.

Technology also played a key role in shaping social and political change in different contexts. The internet significantly changed everyday life and revolutionised communication and the sharing of information and ideas, some of which challenged authority, most notably the Arab Spring.

Ancient History

Unit 1: Ancient Mesopotamia

In this unit students investigate the emergence of early societies in Ancient  Mesopotamia. The lands between the rivers Tigris and the Euphrates have been described as ‘cradle of civilisation’. Although this view is now contested in ancient history and archaeology, the study of Ancient Mesopotamia provides important insights about the growth of cities and the development of civilisations. Students investigate the creation of city-states and empires.

They examine the invention of writing – a pivotal development in human history. 

Students develop their understanding of the importance of primary sources  (the material record and written sources) to inquire about the origins of civilisation.

Unit 2: Ancient Egypt

In this unit students investigate features of the Old Kingdom Egypt and the representation of power in Middle Kingdom Egypt and the Second Intermediate Period. They analyse the conditions that gave rise to a civilisation that endured for approximately three thousand years. Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt was not threatened by its neighbours for the greater part of its history.

The Nile served as the lifeblood of urban settlements in Upper and Lower Egypt. Kingdoms rose, flourished and fell around the banks of this great river. Students develop their understanding of the importance of primary sources (the material record and written sources) to inquire about Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt.

Unit 2: Early China

In this unit students investigate the features of civilisation in early China and the representation of power during the Qin and Han empires. The foundations of civilisation in China have traditionally been located in the Yellow River Valley, but archaeological evidence now suggests that early settlement was not confined to this area.

Life in small agricultural communities, with distinct regional identities, marks the beginnings of civilisation in China. Interactions between these small and diverse settlements led to the formation of rival states, and then to the growth of an enduring civilisation. The development of a series of empires was central to Chinese civilisation.

Early China refers to what is known as the pre-imperial and early imperial periods. Historians and archaeologists refer to the pre-imperial period (up to 221 BCE) as Ancient China. This unit begins with Ancient China and concludes with the end of the Han Empire in 220 CE. Students consider the importance of primary sources to historical inquiry about Early China.

Units 3 and 4: Ancient History

In Units 3 and 4 Ancient History students investigate the features of two ancient societies, and a significant crisis and the role of individuals in these ancient societies. Egypt, Greece and Rome were major civilisations of the Mediterranean and bestowed a powerful legacy on the contemporary world. Students explore the structures of two of these societies and a period of crisis in its history, one for Unit  3 and one for Unit 4.

Life in these ancient societies was shaped by the complex interplay of social, political and economic factors. Trade, warfare and the exchange of ideas between societies also influenced the way people lived. Furthermore, all three societies experienced dramatic crises which caused massive disruption. During these times of upheaval, individuals acted in ways that held profound consequences for themselves and for their society.

In Units 3 and 4 students construct an argument about the past using historical sources (primary sources and historical interpretations) as evidence and evaluate the features and role of individuals in an ancient civilisation. Students develop their understanding of the importance of primary sources to historical inquiry about ancient civilisations. They consider the different perspectives and experiences of people who lived in ancient societies. They use historical interpretations to evaluate how the features of the ancient society changed, and the role, motives and influences of key individuals involved in a crisis.

Australian History

Units 3 and 4: Australian History

In Units 3 and 4 Australian History, students develop their understanding of the foundational and transformative ideas, perspectives and events in Australia’s history and the complexity of continuity and change in the nation’s story.

The study of Australian history is considered both within a national and a global context, particularly Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and culture, a colonial settler society within the British Empire and as part of the Asia-Pacific region. Students come to understand that the history of Australia is contested and that the past continues to contribute to ongoing interpretations, debates and tensions in Australian society.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures are the oldest, continuous cultures in the world, having existed in Australia for at least 60,000 years. Their custodianship of Country led to the development of unique and sophisticated systems of land management, social structures, cultural beliefs and economic practices. European colonisation of Australia brought devastating and radical changes to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Furthermore, the significant turning points such as European settlement, the gold rushes, Federation, the passage of social, political, and economic reforms, the world wars, the emergence of social movements and Aboriginal recognition and land rights have challenged and changed the social, political, economic, environmental and cultural features of the nation, contributing to development of a multicultural and democratic society

Students explore the factors that have contributed to Australia becoming a successful multicultural and democratic society. Throughout this study, students examine and discuss the experiences, perspectives and historical interpretations of Indigenous as well as non-Indigenous people.

In Units 3 and 4, students construct arguments about the past using historical sources (primary sources and historical interpretations) as evidence to analyse the continuities and changes and evaluate the extent to which change occurred in the lives of Australians. Students investigate the significant turning points and trends in Australia’s past to identify the causes, patterns, direction, pace, depth and impact of continuity and change in society. They consider the extent to which events, ideas, individuals, groups and movements contributed to, influenced and/or resisted change. They consider competing historical interpretations, debates and the diverse perspectives of people at the time and how they may have changed while others may have remained the same.

Revolutions

Units 3 & 4 Revolutions

In Units 3 and 4 Revolutions students investigate the significant historical causes and consequences of political revolution. Revolutions represent great ruptures in time and are a major turning point in the collapse and destruction of an existing political order which results in extensive change to society. Revolutions are caused by the interplay of events, ideas, individuals and popular movements, and the interplay between the political, social, cultural, economic and environmental conditions. Their consequences have a profound effect on the political and social structures of the post-revolutionary society. Revolution is a dramatically accelerated process whereby the new regime attempts to create political, social, cultural and economic change and transformation based on the regime’s ideology.

Change in a post-revolutionary society is not guaranteed or inevitable and continuities can remain from the pre-revolutionary society. The implementation of revolutionary ideology was often challenged internally by civil war and externally by foreign threats. These challenges can result in a compromise of revolutionary ideals and extreme measures of violence, oppression and terror.

In these units, students construct an argument about the past using historical sources (primary sources and historical interpretations) as evidence to analyse the complexity and multiplicity of the causes and consequences of revolution, and to evaluate the extent to which the revolution brought change to the lives of people. Students analyse the different perspectives and experiences of people who lived through dramatic revolutionary moments, and how society changed and/or remained the same. Students use historical interpretations to evaluate the causes and consequences of revolution and the extent of change instigated by the new regime.

Assessment

Satisfactory Completion 

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on a decision that the student has demonstrated achievement of the set of outcomes specified for the unit. This decision will be based on the teacher’s assessment of the student’s performance on assessment tasks for the unit.

Levels of Achievement 

Units 1 and 2 

Procedures for the assessment of levels of achievement in Units 1 and 2 are a matter for school decision.

Units 3 and 4

The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority will supervise the assessment of all students undertaking Units 3 and 4 in School-assessed Coursework and an end of year exam.

Contribution to Final Assessment

School-assessed Coursework for Unit 3 will contribute 25% 

School-assessed Coursework for Unit 4 will contribute 25% 

Examination will contribute 50 %

Legal Studies

Units 1 - 4    2024 -2028

Rationale

In contemporary Australian society there are a range of laws existing to both protect the rights of individuals and to achieve social cohesion. These laws are made by bodies such as parliament and the courts and are upheld by a number of institutions and processes within the legal system. Members of a democratic society interact with laws and the legal system through many aspects of their lives and can also influence law makers. 

The study of VCE Legal Studies enables students to become active and informed citizens by providing valuable insight into their relationship with the law and the legal system. Students develop knowledge and skills to enhance their confidence and ability to access and participate in the legal system. 

They will learn to appreciate the underlying principles of the rule of law, how legal systems and processes aim to achieve social cohesion, as well as how they themselves can affect positive change to laws and the legal system. VCE Legal Studies equips students with an ability to research and analyse legal information and apply legal reasoning and decision-making skills. It also fosters critical thinking to solve legal problems. 

Further study in the legal field can lead to a broad range of career opportunities such as a solicitor, barrister, policy adviser, prosecutor, paralegal, legal assistant, as well as other careers in the courtroom, education and law enforcement.

Structure

The study is made up of four units.

Unit 1: The Presumption of Innocence

Unit 2: Wrongs and Rights

Unit 3: Rights and Justice

Unit 4: The People, the Law and Reform

Each unit deals with specific content contained in areas of study and is designed to enable students  to achieve a set of outcomes for that unit. Each outcome is described in terms of key knowledge and key skills.

Entry

There are no prerequisites for entry to Units 1, 2 and 3. Students must undertake Unit 3 and Unit 4 as a sequence. Units 1 to 4 are designed to a standard equivalent to the final two years of secondary education. All VCE studies are benchmarked against comparable national and international curriculum.

Unit 1: The Presumption of Innocence

Laws, including criminal law, aim to achieve social cohesion and protect the rights of individuals. Criminal law is aimed at maintaining social order. When a criminal law is broken, a crime is committed which is punishable and can result in criminal charges and sanctions. 

In this unit, students develop an understanding of legal foundations, such as the different types and sources of law, the characteristics of an effective law, and an overview of parliament and the courts. Students are introduced to and apply the principles of justice. 

They investigate key concepts of criminal law and apply these to actual and/or hypothetical scenarios to determine whether an accused may be found guilty of a crime. In doing this, students develop an appreciation of the manner in which legal principles and information are used in making reasoned judgments and conclusions about the culpability of an accused. 

Students also develop an appreciation of how a criminal case is determined, and the types and purposes of sanctions. Students apply their understanding of how criminal cases are resolved and the effectiveness of sanctions through consideration of recent criminal cases from the past four years.

Unit 2: Wrongs & Rights

Civil law aims to protect the rights of individuals. When rights are infringed, a dispute may arise requiring resolution, and remedies may be awarded. In this unit, students investigate key concepts of civil law and apply these to actual and/or hypothetical scenarios to determine whether a party is liable in a civil dispute. 

Students explore different areas of civil law, and the methods and institutions that may be used to resolve a civil dispute and provide remedies. They apply knowledge through an investigation of civil cases from the past four years. 

Students also develop an understanding of how human rights are protected in Australia and possible reforms to the protection of rights, and investigate a contemporary human rights issue in Australia, with a specific focus on one case study. 

Unit 3: Rights & Justice

The Victorian justice system, which includes the criminal and civil justice systems, aims to protect the rights of individuals and uphold the principles of justice: fairness, equality and access. 

In this unit, students examine the methods and institutions in the criminal and civil justice system, and consider their appropriateness in determining criminal cases and resolving civil disputes. 

Students consider the Magistrates’ Court, County Court and Supreme Court within the Victorian court hierarchy, as well as other means and institutions used to determine and resolve cases. 

Students explore topics such as the rights available to an accused and to victims in the criminal justice system, the roles of the judge, jury, legal practitioners and the parties, and the ability of sanctions and remedies to achieve their purposes. 

Students investigate the extent to which the principles of justice are upheld in the justice system. Throughout this unit, students apply legal reasoning and information to actual and/or hypothetical scenarios.

Unit 4: The People, the Law  & Reform

The study of Australia’s laws and legal system includes an understanding of institutions that make and reform our laws. 

In this unit, students explore how the Australian Constitution establishes the law-making powers of the Commonwealth and state parliaments, and how it protects the Australian people through structures that act as a check on parliament in law-making. 

Students develop an understanding of the significance of the High Court in protecting and interpreting the Australian Constitution. 

They investigate parliament and the courts, and the relationship between the two in law-making, and consider the roles of the individual, the media and law reform bodies in influencing changes to the law, and past and future constitutional reform. 

Throughout this unit, students apply legal reasoning and information to actual and/or hypothetical scenarios.

Assessment

Satisfactory Completion

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on whether the student has demonstrated the set of outcomes specified for the unit. 

Levels of Achievement 

Units 1 and 2

The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on whether the student has demonstrated the set of outcomes specified for the unit. 

All assessments at Units 1 and 2 are school-based. Procedures for assessment of levels of achievement in Units 1 and 2 are a matter for school decision.

Units 3 and 4

The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority will supervise the assessment of all students undertaking Units 3 and 4 in School-assessed Coursework and an end of year exam.

Percentage contributions to the study score in VCE Legal Studies are as follows:

Unit 3 School-assessed Coursework: 25 %

Unit 4 School-assessed Coursework: 25 %

End-of-year examination: 50 %